Apr. 5, 2007 - How to Write a Research Paper

I compiled this from a variety of sources, (cited below) for my high school writing co-op class.

How to Write a Research Paper

1. What is a Research Paper?
   1. Using research to discover information and using that information to make an argument in an academic paper.
   2. A research paper is NOT a book report. Research papers involve reading many books and require you to synthesize the information you find into a thesis.
   3. A research paper is NOT an essay. An essay does analyze a topic, but doesn’t necessarily include any research.
   4. A research paper is NOT journalism. Journalists attempt to report the facts without bias or a point of view. In a research paper, you need to take a position- maybe even a controversial one- and back it up through your research.

2. What types of research papers are there?
   1. Historical Events- Research a historical event as broad as the Civil War or as narrow as one battle and come up with an original thesis that analyzes some aspect of the event.
   2. Current Events- Investigate some aspect of a political situation or social issue, take a stand, and back it up with research.
   3. Text-based- Read key texts in a particular academic topic, research what other scholars have written about those texts and then come up with your own informed thesis.
   4. Personal Interest- Choose a topic that’s of personal interest to you, research it, and generate a thesis on what you discover.

3. What are the parts of a research paper?
   1. Introduction- An interesting beginning to capture the reader’s attention and let the reader know what the paper will be about.
   2. Thesis- A well-defined idea that takes an arguable stance. A thesis can’t be an obvious point with which nearly everyone would agree. The thesis appears in the introduction, usually as the last sentence.
   3. Arguments- Concise, well developed examples or points that link together to build a case for your thesis. These should come from a variety of sources.
   4. Counterarguments- Possible objections to your thesis. Anticipate and answer all possible objections. This makes your paper a “research paper” instead of an opinion piece.
   5. Conclusion- An ending that does more than summarize and restate your argument. A conclusion should resolve some question, broaden the issue, and deepen the reader’s understanding of your thesis.

4. What are the four basic criteria for grading a research paper?
   1. Does the paper have a persuasive, convincing argument?
   2. Is the argument supported by relevant, careful research?
   3. Does the paper showcase analytical thought?
   4. Is the paper written well?

5. What is the process of writing a research paper?
   1. Planning-

2. Researching-

3. Writing-

4. Polishing-

6. Choosing your topic-
   1. You must choose a topic that interests you. If you choose a topic that is easy to research but not really interesting to you, your paper will be boring.
   2. Brainstorm for ideas, considering your own passions and interests. List everything that you’d enjoy researching and writing about.
   3. Get ideas by doing web searches, and/or talking with parents and friends.
   4. Focus your topic- If your topic is too broad, you’ll feel overwhelmed and panicked as you sort through your research material. If your topic is too narrow, you’ll feel annoyed and frustrated that you can’t find enough material to use. To narrow your topic, look for subtopics within your topic.
   5. Your ideal topic will provoke debate.
   6. Links for Hot Topic ideas:

7. Do preliminary research-
   1. Are there plenty of resources available- books, articles, reputable websites, journals, etc…
   2. Will I be able to understand the resources available?

8. Form a hypothesis-
   1. Form a tentative assumption, a general theory you’d like to investigate. Be open to revising, changing, or even reversing your original hypothesis, depending on where your research takes you.

9. Gathering Source Materials-
   1. Reference materials- Encyclopedia, world atlas, etc…
   2. Primary Sources- Original works. Documents, artwork, autobiographies, first-person accounts, letters, interviews, novels, films, plays, poems, short stories, speeches, and TV shows. 
   3. Secondary Sources- Works about primary sources and their authors, including journal articles, biographies, editorials, essays, and reviews.
   4. Utilize the library, online searches, academic journal databases, you may also use less traditional sources, such as films, documentaries, interviews, maps, photographs or questionnaires.
   5. Write down the source information for your bibliography, especially if you make copies or printout internet sources that you might not be able to find later.

10. Get an Overview-
    1. Skim your sources to determine what will be useful to your topic. Ideas for skimming- read the first and last paragraph of each chapter, read the topic sentence of each paragraph, put sticky notes on things you want to read more carefully.
    2. You don’t have to read each source from cover to cover, but do read the most relevant portions completely.
    3. Set aside the sources that aren’t very useful.

11. Read and take notes-
    1. Possible note formats- Note cards, notebook paper, or computer notes. 
    2. Do not write notes in full sentences, focus on essential info.
    3. Do not rely too heavily on one source. Do not accept one author’s statements as fact without comparing them against others’ opinions.

12. Types of notes-
    1. Basic Facts
    2. Summary- sum up paragraphs, chapters, articles, books, etc.
    3. Paraphrase- Useful when you want to keep writing in your own voice, but you cannot use the author’s exact phrasing (unless you want to put it in quotation marks.) Write down the page number where your paraphrased passage occurs. It’s plagiarism to paraphrase an author without citation, even if you’re not using direct quotations. 
    4. Evidence- When you come across information that bolsters your hypothesis, make a note of it.
    5. Counterargument- It’s important to note evidence against your topic, so you can address it in your paper.
    6. New Idea- Ideally, your sources will ignite many sparks as you read, take the time to write them down.
    7. Quotation- If the line is colorful, unusual, precise, and exactly relevant to your hypothesis; write it down for possible use in your paper. If you omit a phrase, use … (an ellipses) in its place. If you omit a whole sentence or more, use four periods …. In its place.

13. Revise your hypothesis and create your thesis-
    1. Feel free to revise your hypothesis at this point. If your original idea is supported, great, but stay flexible if it’s not.
    2. Requirements for a successful thesis-

3. Read through all of your notes, then go back to your hypothesis and think about how your research has changed or confirmed that hypothesis.
4. Think, think, think… until the best thesis clicks in your head and you can imagine the supporting paragraphs following the thesis
5. Finally, write down the thesis. Then refine the language, getting the statement as concise and accurate as possible.
6. Avoid these common thesis pitfalls-

14. Making an Outline-
    1. Format:

15. Write your first draft-
    1. Have faith in your outline
    2. Sort your notes by argument and from most useful to least useful within each argument.
    3. Expand your sketched-out arguments and evidence into full-fledged sentences and paragraphs
    4. Add material to clarify your thoughts
    5. Connect each point with transitions
    6. Focus on ideas, not style. Don’t lose momentum by trying to get each sentence perfect. Focus on clarity and connection, not elegance.
    7. Mark spots that you need to come back to or facts you need to check.
    8. Introduction- Begin broad and narrow to your thesis. In deciding where to begin your introduction, it will help to think back to the first stages of your research, before you had narrowed your focus. What about your topic originally piqued your interest? What fascinated you will likely fascinate your readers. Mention your research, but don’t feel obligated to list all of your sources. After stating your thesis, write a few sentences to lay out the arguments you will make to support your thesis. Try to keep your introduction down to one healthy paragraph.
    9. Body- Flesh out your arguments, making sure each argument connects logically to the next. Each paragraph should address just one key point. Use the TRIAC paragraph model:

10. Conclusion- Start with a tight focus on your paper and then broaden to encompass a wider prospective. You shouldn’t tackle an entirely new topic, but it should show that you’ve considered how your topic fits into a wider context. Don’t restate everything you’ve written in your paper which will bore your reader.

16. Take a day off after completing your first draft- you want to be fresh when you tackle the re-writing.

17. Revising your work-
    1. Revise the body first, improving topic sentences and strengthening paragraph content.
    2. Revise the introduction
    3. Revise the conclusion
    4. Big stuff- At this stage you’ll do lots of deleting, rewriting, cutting and pasting. Don’t worry about word choice or punctuation at this stage.

5. Small stuff- small, but important

18. Proofreading your work-
    1. Use computerized grammar, spelling and punctuation checking.
    2. Don’t rely on the automatic checks completely. Print it out and read it out loud.
    3. Format your paper carefully, according to the appropriate documentation style given by your instructor.

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Apr. 3, 2007 - Old Virginny

Urged by my co-op writing students to prepare a state report similiar to the one they are working on, here's my State Report on Virginia.  ;-)

Virginia, known as the Mother of Presidents, has produced eight Presidents, more than any other state.  Today, it has one of the largest populations in the United States, with over 6.5 million residents. In 1788, it was the tenth state to join the Union and played a very important role in the founding of America.  Located on the mid-Atlantic coast, its landscape varies from the awe-inspiring Blue Ridge Mountains in western Virginia, to the rich soils of the high, rolling plains in the middle of the state, and flat, sandy plains covering the eastern region called the Tidewater where Atlantic Ocean tides flow into the Chesapeake Bay and several rivers including the Potomac, James & York rivers.  The flowering Dogwood, one of my favorite trees, serves as both the state flower and the state tree. 

Virginia has a fascinating history that Hollywood can’t resist making into movies.  The first inhabitants of what is now known as Virginia were Native American tribes including the Powhatans and the Cherokee.  In 1570, Spanish missionaries settled along the York River, but disease and Indian attacks killed all of the missionaries.  Afterwards, English explorers claimed the region, but didn’t settle there until 1607, when John Smith founded Jamestown, the first English settlement in North America.  The Jamestown location was selected by the colonists because it was surrounded on three sides by water, so they thought it would be easy to defend.  However, the 104 original settlers didn’t count on swampy land, salty air, and hordes of mosquitoes.  Many colonists became sick and died and the colony would have failed completely, except Captain John Smith befriended the Powhatan Indians and traded English goods for food.  However, the Powhatan chief did not trust John Smith and ordered him to be killed.  True to the familiar tale, the chief’s daughter, Pocahontas, pleaded with her father to spare his life and he did.   Afterwards, an uneasy peace existed between the Indians and the colonists and more colonists began to arrive.  Because of the drought and poor growing conditions, the early colonists’ attempts to farm failed.  435 out of the 500 colonists died of starvation and disease in the winter of 1610.  Preparing to abandon camp the following summer, the survivors were saved when a supply ship arrived from Great Britain. 

John Rolfe, who replaced John Smith as the peace negotiator with the Indians, introduced tobacco farming to the colonists and finally the colonists had a successful cash crop.  John Rolfe also married Pocahontas and had one son before she died of smallpox returning from a trip to England.  Rolfe’s marriage to Pocahontas has long been credited with preventing war at that time with the Indians, although the English were taking more and more land from the Indians to accommodate the quickly growing tobacco plantations. 

The first Africans to come to North America arrived in 1619 as indentured servants.   They were not slaves, though they worked for seven years without pay to pay for their passage to America.  Although some 3,500 colonists made the journey to the Jamestown colony, only 1200 were living in 1622 due to disease, starvation and Indian attacks. 

Virginia played a crucial role in shaping the nation.  Several prominent Virginians, Thomas Jefferson, Patrick Henry and George Washington, were delegates at the First Continental Congress in Pennsylvania in 1774, where the colonists voted for independence from Great Britain due to King James’ harsh policy of “taxation without representation.”   In 1776, Virginian Patrick Henry gave his historic speech in which he proclaimed “Give me Liberty, or give me death!”   Later, Thomas Jefferson penned the Declaration of Independence, which was signed by the members of the Second Continental Congress in Virginia on July 4, 1776. 

Few Revolutionary War battles took place in Virginia, but the last battle of the war took place in Yorktown, Virginia where the British surrendered in October, 1781. 

James Madison, known as the Father of the Constitution, was a prominent Virginian who led the effort to write the United States Constitution.  Virginia’s Bill of Rights was included with the new Constitution at the insistence of the Virginians.

Regarding the issue of slavery, Virginia was divided.  The rich tobacco plantation owners wanted slavery to stay legal, but the western counties wanted the slaves to be freed.  However, during the Civil War, Virginia served as the center of military and political operations for the Confederacy.  Virginia suffered tremendously during and after the Civil War.  The capital, Richmond, was largely burned and had amassed a large debt. 

Finally, in the late nineteenth century, Virginia’s economy recovered when coal fields opened up and railroads were built throughout the state.  The tobacco industry recovered and factories making cloth, furniture and cigarettes were built. 

From sandy beaches, picturesque mountain trails and lush forest preserves, Virginia’s landscape has much to offer the visitor.   But to me, the most exciting things to do and see in Virginia are visiting the rich historical sites.  Jamestown is no longer a town, but you can learn more by visiting the Jamestown settlement which has been rebuilt nearby.  You can also tour replicas of the three ships that brought the settlers to Jamestown.   Another fascinating stop on your historical tour should include Williamsburg, where visitors can experience a rebuilt colonial town.  Nearby in Busch Gardens Williamsburg, European villages from the 1600s have been recreated there.  Would you like to see where the first Thanksgiving was celebrated in 1619?   You can see that at Berkeley Plantation west of Williamsburg. 

For bridge and tunnel fans, the Chesapeake Bay Bridge-tunnel spanning from the Eastern Shore to Virginia Beach is the longest bridge-tunnel in the world. 

In Northeastern Virginia, you can tour the house and grounds of George Washington’s home at Mount Vernon.  Nearby, you can visit Arlington National Cemetery where more than 200,000 soldiers are buried.  The graves of John F. Kennedy and his wife Jacqueline are there as well.  I will never forget the plaintive bugle call of Taps when we had the opportunity to visit Arlington National Cemetery in 2002.  The changing of the guard at the tomb of the Unknown Soldier is another extraordinary thing to experience.  The Tomb of the Unknown Soldier is guarded 24 hours a day, through rain and snow and wind and hail, with great care and the utmost commitment.

If nature is your thing, you’re in for a treat inside the Skyline Caverns in the Shenandoah National Park which is part of the Blue Ridge Mountains.    Near the park is the famous Confederate general Thomas “Stonewall” Jackson’s hometown of Lexington. 

After preparing this report, I can’t wait to schedule another trip to Virginia.  Are you as intrigued as I am?  I think Virginia’s state song, written by the Negro minstrel, James Bland, after the civil war, is a heartwarming tribute and says it all.

“Carry me back to old Virginny. 
There’s where the cotton and the corn and taters grow;
There’s where the birds warble sweet in the spring-time;
There’s where this old darkey’s heart am long’d to go.”

Yes, carry me back to old Virginny, that is one place I’d love to go. 

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